The Medieval Hocket
by Mary E. Wolinski
(Last updated on 30 September 2003)
Content
Etymology of the Word Hoquetus
(Old French | Arabic |
Latin | Conclusions)
Polyphonic hocketing
The hoquet in Old French poetry
Hockets outside the Middle Ages
Sources
Introduction
The term hocket is used in various ways. In modern parlance it refers to a
musical technique by which two or more voices or instruments sing or play in alternation.
When one voice stops after one or a few notes, another begins, and so on. Singing or
playing instruments in this way is found in music of various style periods and locales.
According to late
medieval Latin treatises a hocket is made by cutting up sound, and the term designates
both that musical technique and the type of music that features it. In medieval French poetry
it denotes various kinds of music in addition to learned polyphonic
hockets. It is not known how the hocket technique came about in Western
medieval music. That is why it is important to understand how
scholars have tried to trace the origin and development of the
word (etymology). Their theories can suggest where further work
needs to be done.
1. Etymology of the Word Hoquetus.
Although the etymology of a word is a matter for linguists
to study, when the word is a musical term it may be also of interest
to musicologists for a couple of reasons. First, as with all
technical terminology, it is natural to ask why a word is apt
or at least seemed so to those who coined it. Second, if we find
that the origin lies with a certain culture that used it in a
similar sense, it offers the possibility of being able to place
the technique in a musical context that, in the absence of enough
surviving literature from the time, could not have been established
by the more common methods of musicologists. The word whose etymology
is of interest to us here is the medieval Latin "hoquetus."
In the following paragraphs we present the speculations of others
on the etymology of this word and consider the most promising
directions for further investigation. Although we cannot draw
definite conclusions at this time, there is reason to believe
that this line of inquiry is worth pursuing further.
There are several points of view about the origin of the Latin
word hoquetus.
- (a) Some, like Sanders, believe that it was derived from
the Old French hoquet, which meant a hiccup or stutter.
Most recently, however, Städtler (DEAF) has argued that the French
word hoquet, when it signifies the musical technique,
is related to the French verb hochier, meaning "to
shake."
-
- (b) Farmer, Schneider
and Husmann (MGG1) had previously considered
hoquetus to have come from the Arabic iqā'āt
or al-quat'.
-
- (c) Frobenius (HMT) has argued for a Latin source, occare.
These points of view will be examined in turn below.
(a) Old French.
One may ask why the authors of Latin treatises turned a French
word into Latin. The writers of thirteenth-century Latin musical
treatises on this topic knew French and many of them probably
studied in Paris, where this style of music was cultivated. They
wrote in Latin because it was an international scholarly language
at that time and authors were expected to write in Latin no matter
what their native tongue might have been. Suitable Latin terminology
did not always exist or, for whatever reason, writers could not
always find the appropriate Latin word. Therefore, they latinized
words from the vernacular or spoken language.
The French and Latin words for hocket as a musical technique
appear in writing at approximately the same time in the third
quarter of the thirteenth century, although polyphonic hocketing
had existed since at least the beginning of the century. One
French example is Adam de la Halle's use of hoquetant
to mean hocketing. (See 3. The French hoquet
below.)
Another comes from the music theorist Lambertus, whose treatise
is one of the first to use the term in Latin. He apparently latinizes
the French when he says that the hocket "is called hoket
in the vernacular" ("hokectus vulgariter appellatur"
[CS 1:281]).
As for the French word for the musical technique, there are
two theories about its origin. The most recent, proposed by Städtler
(DEAF H:512-20), considers it related to the Old French hochier
and similar words in Middle Dutch and Middle High German that
mean "to shake." Städtler made this connection
because of the liveliness of hockets as described by the music
theorist Johannes de Grocheo.
An earlier theory, advocated by the musicologist Ernest Sanders
and supported by the etymology of that time (FEW 4:450-2), derived
the hocket from the Old French hoquet, meaning a hiccup
or stutter. In this case hoquet and related words in Middle
Dutch, Flemish and Breton were considered onomatopoeic, that
is, they sounded like what they meant. The intermittent stopping
and starting of each hocketing voice was thought to resemble
hiccuping.
(b) Arabic.
The Arabs had much contact with and influence on Europe in
the Middle Ages through scholarship, invasions and trade. In
connection with music, certain European instruments, such as
the lute (whose name derives from the Arabic al'ud), were
imitations of Middle Eastern ones.
In 1925 Farmer suggested that the Latin hoquetus was
derived from the Arabic word iqā'āt, meaning
"rhythm." Schneider (1929) accepted the derivation,
but believed that it was analogous with general musical performance:
just as Arabic instruments accompanied a melody by distributing
the rhythm among the various players, so in Western music the
notes of a melody were broken up and distributed among the voices
of a polyphonic piece. Husmann (MGG1) offered a correction, suggesting
the noun with its article al-quat', which refers to the
act of cutting. However, he never published the article on the
etymology of "hoquet" and the Arabian influence on
Gothic music that he had announced in MGG1, and the above hypotheses
have since been abandoned.
Interestingly, the Arabic word for cotton, al-qutun,
was the source for some Old French words that sound like hoquet,
such as auqueton, alqueton and hoqueton,
meaning cotton cloth or a padded military tunic (FEW 19:100-2).
Hoquet was also the long robe of a Capuchin monk (Godefroy 4:496).
(c) Latin.
Because medieval music theorists writing in Latin often describe
hocketing as the cutting of sound, Frobenius (HMT) prefers a Latin
source word that refers to cutting. He hypothesizes that the
Latin verb occare gave rise to the Latin musical term
hoccitatio as used by Lambertus (CS 1:281).
The common meaning of occare was to harrow although,
starting perhaps in the Middle Ages, it also denoted cutting
or breaking off, specifically in the myth of the three Fates,
who determined each person's destiny. One Fate held the distaff,
another drew the thread of life and the third cut it off (TLL
9/2:359-60; Latham 320). Thus, cutting the thread of life in
a figurative sense meant dying.
(d) Conclusions.
There are two competing and viable hypotheses for the origin
of the Latin hoquetus. It came either from Old French
or from Latin. It is difficult to chose between these hypotheses
because both the Latin and French terms denoting the musical
technique appear in writing at roughly the same time. If it came
from the Latin occare, as Frobenius argues, then the technique
was named by learned church musicians, who also may have invented it.
However, if it came from the French word hoquet, it is possible that
a folk type of music already
existed with that name. Indeed, interlocking polyphonic performance
is common in various folk cultures. (See 4.
Hockets outside the Middle Ages.) Whether this was also true
in the Middle Ages would be difficult to determine, but it might
be suggested by a comparative study of medieval Old French, Germanic
and Celtic literature.
2. Polyphonic hocketing.
Hocketing is a technique found in written polyphonic music
of Paris and Notre-Dame Cathedral starting in the thirteenth
century. In its simplest form it is the rapid alternation of
rests and notes between two or more voices. When one voices pauses,
the other sings, giving the effect of gasps or hiccups. In addition,
medieval theorists also recognized hocketing within only one
voice in a polyphonic piece. In this case, the melody is not
sung in normal phrases. Instead, notes or short phrases alternate
quickly with rests.
Theorists found ways to describe hocket-like rhythms by comparing
them to the normal ones of that time. The most common rhythms,
called maneries or modes, consisted of patterns of longs
(long notes) and breves (short notes). Johannes de Garlandia
and like-minded theorists recognized six rhythmic modes. First,
second and sixth modes are conventional or recti, because
their longs contain two time units and their breves only one.
The third through fifth modes are called ultra mensuram
because they exceed the normal note values, the longs having
three time units and pairs of breves having one and two time
units, respectively. The table below shows patterns of longs
and breves, together with the number of time units for each note.
Table 1: The Rhythmic Modes
|
Modes |
Note Values |
Number of Time Units per Note |
|
1. |
L B, L B, L B, etc. |
2 1, 2 1, 2 1, etc. |
|
2. |
B L, B L, B L, etc. |
1 2, 1 2, 1 2, etc. |
|
3. |
L B B, L B B, etc. |
3 1 2, 3 1 2, etc. |
|
4. |
B B L, B B L, etc. |
1 2 3, 1 2 3, etc. |
|
5. |
L, L, L, etc. |
3, 3, 3, etc. |
|
6. |
B B B, B B B, etc. |
1 1 1, 1 1 1, etc. |
Hocketing was created by alternating rests and notes within those pre-set patterns.
Early in the thirteenth century it was limited to first, second
and fifth modes. The following table shows normal (or perfect) rhythmic passages in
each of those three modes compared with an illustration of how they might sound if they were
hocketed.
Table 2: Sample Rhythmic Passages
Early hocketing appeared within larger compositions, such as organa, conductus and motets.
Example 1 below quotes from a conductus. It is taken from a long melismatic setting of the
syllable -nan- from the word fulminante ("threatening"). Notice that the
lowest voice maintains a steady rhythm in the first mode (LB, LB). The highest of the three
voices (triplum) has a short hocketing passage that consists of five notes. The second voice
(duplum) also begins in first mode and then hockets so that its alternating notes and
rests interlock with those of the top voice.
Example 1. Dic Christi veritas (Florence, Biblioteca
Mediceo-Laurenziana, Pluteo 29, 1, fol. 204)
After the mid-thirteenth century, motets, as well as short, independent
pieces called "hockets," began to appear with continuous
hocketing throughout. Now all six modes were used, as well as
a shorter note value, the semibreve, and its rest. Hocketing
was classified by the presence or absence of various elements,
such as a tenor (that is, a preexistent melody or melodic pattern
in the lowest voice), text, and resecatio (the division
of longs or breves by rests into smaller notes).
Also associated with hocketing was the technique of "modal
transmution," by which a piece written in one rhythmic mode
was transformed into another. A famous example is In seculum
longum, written by a Spaniard in a "long" mode
(fifth mode in the tenor), and transformed by certain Parisians
into a "short" mode (second mode in the tenor). See
Example 2 below.
Example 2. In seculum longum and In seculum breve
(Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Lit. 115, fols. 63v, 64)
These two pieces are important because each, in its own way, epitomizes the
new rhythmic style. In seculum longum illustrates resecatio, or "cutting up."
This is because at the same time that the lowest voice (tenor) moves in fifth
mode the upper parts hocket more quickly in second mode, that is, they "cut up" the
fifth-mode longs into the shorter longs and breves of second mode. In seculum breve
is even more daring. Not only do the two upper voices "cut up" in sixth mode (compared
with the tenor's second mode), but they also subdivide the breves of sixth mode into
smaller semibreves and their rests. These more modern rhythms could be sung only by the
most skillful singers. Those who were less trained and capable would find it too difficult,
as music theorists of that time pointed out.
In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, hockets
were the fastest compositions. According to Jacobus de Montibus,
a conservative theorist of the early fourteenth century (Desmond),
"if we talk about double and contra-double hockets and certain
other measured compositions, according to the Ancients [or traditional
musicians] the perfect breve has so quick a measure that three
semibreves cannot be sung in place of it correctly or easily,"
and "the Ancients used a quick measure of breves commonly
in motets or the fastest in double hockets" ("...si
de hoketis loquimur duplicibus et contraduplicibus et aliis quibusdam
mensuratis cantibus, brevis perfecta ita citam, secundum Antiquos,
habet mensuram ut non bene vel leviter pro ea tres semibreves
dici possunt.... Antiqui cita mensuratione brevium in motetis
communiter vel citissima in hoketis duplicibus usi sint..."
[Bragard 7:36:5 and 7]).
At this time hocketing also was combined with voice-exchange
or rondellus technique, as in the English rondellus Ave virgo
mater dei, edited in full in Wibberley,
pp. 48-9.
Example 3: Ave virgo mater dei (Oxford, Bodleian Library,
Lat. liturg. d 20, fol. 13v)
By the early fourteenth century hocketing had become so much
a part of compositional style that it was excoriated along with
other modern musical techniques by conservative churchmen.
Pope John XXII's Docta sanctorum of 1324 criticized
modern composers for using hockets, as well as discant and French
motets, "for they cut up chant melodies with hockets, make
them slimy with discants, sometimes force upon them vernacular
tripla and moteti" ("Nam melodias hoquetis intersecant,
discantibus lubricant, triplis et motetis vulgaribus nonnunquam
inculcant" [Corpus juris canonici 2:256]).
A Cistercian statute of 1320 requires that plainchant be sung
in the traditional way, the modern way "with syncopations
of notes and also hockets having been forbidden in our chant
simply because such things smack more of looseness than of devotion"
("sincopationibus notarum et etiam hoquetis interdictis
in cantu nostro simpliciter quia talia magis dissolutionem quam
devotionem sapiant" [Canivez 3:349]).
Throughout the fourteenth century hocketing was used in almost
all the polyphonic genres. In motets and mass movements it often
highlighted the repetitive structure of isorhythm and ornamented
melismatic passages, such as concluding Amens. A particularly
clear example can be found in the Credo which has been attributed
variously to Bonbarde, Prunet and Perneth, and published in PMFC, vol. 23B, p. 237.
Hocketing appeared also in French chansons, chaces and canons,
as well as Italian madrigals and caccias. Occasionally it served
a mimetic function, representing a lover's sobs, cries and shouts,
the sound of instruments, rustic Italian stuttering or the bleating
of sheep. Wessely claims that in three madrigals hocketing was
used to emphasize and isolate a woman's name "hidden"
within a longer word, for example, ANNAmorar and AN
NAve. It depicts trumpeting in the canon "Tres dous
compains" (PMFC 20:228-31) and in the tenor and contratenor
of Dufay's Gloria Ad modum tubae. (A score of the Dufay
Gloria can be found in Dufay vol. 4, pp.
79-80.)
Hockets as self-contained compositions (such as the In
seculum hockets of Example 2) died out in the fourteenth
century, with the exception of Machaut's hocket David (PMFC
3:65-7) and Pycard's Sanctus (Old Hall 1/2:373-5). Hocketing
in general fell out of use as fifteenth-century composers adopted
a smoother, more flowing rhythmic style, abandoned isorhythmic
structure and lost a taste for rapid contrasts in small note
values. However, hocketing in short phrases contributed to the
imitative style of Renaissance music. A good example can be found
in the anonymous Gloria published in Hoppin,
vol. 1, p. 80.
3. The hoquet in Old French poetry.
Late medieval French poetry refers to polyphonic hoques
and double hoques along with other types of music-making.
Gace de la Buigne, in Le roman des deduis, compares the
striking of anvils of various pitches and the baying of hounds
to hocketing (375:8080-8, 462:10589-95; 463:106303-10).
Lyrical poems refer to hoquets sung alone by the narrator:
- "Closing with a latch the walled enclosure, while singing
a new hocket, I went off to play" ("Clos des murs,
fermant a loquet, En chantent .i. nouviau hoquet, M'alai jouer"
[Wilkins, p. 28]);
- "Then I will sing, `Ai! Ai!' And so I will invent little
songs, hockets and new airs, and so I will dance" ("A
donc chanterai Ai! Ai! Et si troverai Chansonettes, hokés
et notes novelles Et si dancerai" [Streng-Renkonen, p.13]).
Adam de la Halle uses the term in the highest voice of a polyphonic
motet. He relates how four young fellows, when they hocket, make
percussive sounds faster than the panpipes. They also dance together,
beating on the floor while hocketing. ("Quant il hoquetent
Plus tost clapetent Que frestel Li damoisel... Et quant il font
le moulin Ensamble tout quatre Et au plastre batre En hoquetant"
[Tischler, 3:74-6, 4:83-4; Adam de la Halle p. 202-5].)
The above references to French hockets sung by a single person, as well
as by rowdy young men, dancing and beating on the floor, indicate that hockets
were not performed solely by learned clerics. They were sung by lay people, too.
There is otherwise little known about such singing in the folk tradition.
More understanding might be gained by a comparative study of medieval vernacular
literature.
4.
Hockets outside the Middle Ages.
Hocket-like effects are found in various types of folk music
and in European classical music of later centuries. They are
produced in the flute and trumpet ensembles, xylophones, drums,
whistles and horns of sub-Saharan Africa, the flute dance music
of New Guinea, the panpipe playing of the Andes and the polyphonic
singing of the Swiss Alps and the Georgian Caucasus. Special
effects in sixteenth-century English lute music, eighteenth-century
French opéra comique, and in the fifth of Mozart's
twelve piano variations on Ah, vous dirai-je, Maman can
be described as hocketing.
In the twentieth century, composers such as Sofia Gubaidulina,
Harrison Birtwistle, Naji Hakim and Osvaldas Balakauskas have
borrowed medieval techniques and genres, including hocketing.
Arvo Pärt's use of tintinnabulation (the sound of ringing
bells) can sound like hocketing, as in his choral piece "...which
was the son of..." (2000).
Recent research indicates that we perceive the octave in a
hocket-like way. If two notes an octave apart are alternated,
each half of the brain hears only the high or low pitch, respectively.
Each half, therefore, hears alternating notes and rests, like
a hocket (Carapezza).
5. Sources.
General remarks
For general descriptions of the medieval hocket in English,
see Dalglish, Sanders,
and NG2. For musical scores of medieval hockets
and hocketing, many examples can be found from the thirteenth
century in Anderson (especially vols.
1, 2 and 3), Roesner, and Tischler,
and from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in Dufay
(vol. 4), Hoppin, Old
Hall, and PMFC.
For discussions in English of hocketing in non-Western music,
see Baumann, Donohoe,
Koetting, Nketia, and
Schmidt. On hocketing in Western contemporary
music, see Arias, Davidson,
Davis, and Hall.
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To Return to the Contents of this Article:
Top of page | Etymology
(Old French, Arabic,
Latin, Conclusions) |
Polyphonic hocketing |
The hoquet in Old French poetry |
Hockets outside the Middle Ages |
Sources |
For other ORB Music articles:
visit http://the-orb.net/encyclop/culture/music/musindex.html
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